UCSF team finds key to making neurons from stem cells

Last updated: Monday 23 March 2015 at 12am PST

Pnky, a noncoding RNA found in brain stem cells, may have a broad range of clinical applications

A research team at UC San Francisco has discovered an RNA molecule called Pnky that can be manipulated to increase the production of neurons from neural stem cells.

The research, led by neurosurgeon Daniel A. Lim, MD, PhD, and published in Cell Stem Cell, has possible applications in regenerative medicine, including treatments of such disorders as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and traumatic brain injury, and in cancer treatment.

Pnky is one of a number of newly discovered long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), which are stretches of 200 or more nucleotides in the human genome that do not code for proteins, yet seem to have a biological function.

The name, pronounced "Pinky," was inspired by the popular American cartoon series Pinky and the Brain. "Pnky is encoded near a gene called 'Brain,' so it sort of suggested itself to the students in my laboratory," said Lim. Pnky also appears only to be found in the brain, he noted.

Co-first authors Alex Ramos, PhD, and Rebecca Andersen, who are students in Lim's laboratory, first studied Pnky in neural stem cells found in mouse brains, and also identified the molecule in neural stem cells of the developing human brain. They found that when Pnky was removed from stem cells in a process called knockdown, neuron production increased three to four times.

"It is remarkable that when you take Pnky away, the stem cells produce many more neurons," said Lim, an assistant professor of neurological surgery and director of restorative surgery at UCSF. "These findings suggest that Pnky, and perhaps lncRNAs in general, could eventually have important applications in regenerative medicine and cancer treatment."

Lim observed that Pnky has an intriguing possible connection with brain tumors.

Using an analytical technique called mass spectrometry, Ramos found that Pnky binds the protein PTBP1, which is also found in brain tumors and is known to be a driver of brain tumor growth. In neural stem cells, Pnky and PTBP1 appear to function together to suppress the production of neurons. "Take away one or the other and the stem cells differentiate, making more neurons," said Lim. "It is also possible that Pnky can regulate brain tumor growth, which means we may have identified a target for the treatment of brain tumors."

Lim said that the larger significance of the research is that it adds to a growing store of knowledge about lncRNAs, previously unknown sections of the genome that some biologists have referred to as the "dark matter" of the human genome.

"Recently, over fifty thousand human lncRNAs have been discovered. Thus, there may be more human lncRNAs than there are genes that code for proteins," said Lim. "It is possible that not all lncRNAs have important biological functions, but we are making a start toward learning which ones do, and if so, how they function. It's a new world of experimental biology, and the students in my lab are right there on the frontier."

Lim had particular praise for Ramos, an MD-PhD student in the UCSF Medical Scientist Training Program, and Andersen, who has a fellowship from the prestigious National Science Foundation (NSF) Graduate Research Fellowship Program. "They have been a great collaborative team and an inspiration to others in my lab," said Lim. "I think they represent the pioneering, investigative spirit of the UCSF student body. 

Adapted by MNT from original media releasehttp://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/291203.php?tw

Long-term effect of deep brain stimulation on pain in patients with Parkinson's disease

Immunohistochemistry for alpha-synuclein showing positive staining (brown) of an intraneural Lewy-body in the Substantia nigra in Parkinson's disease. Credit: Wikipedia

Patients with Parkinson disease who experienced pain before undergoing subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation (STN DBS) had that pain improved or eliminated at eight years after surgery, although the majority of patients developed new pain, mostly musculoskeletal, according to an article published online by JAMA Neurology.

Pain is a common nonmotor symptom in patients with Parkinson disease and it negatively impacts quality of life.

Beom S. Jeon, M.D., Ph.D., of the Seoul National University Hospital, Korea, and coauthors evaluated the long-term effect of STN DBS on pain in 24 patients with Parkinson disease who underwent STN DBS. Assessments of pain were conducted preoperatively and eight years after surgery.

Of the 24 patients, 16 (67 percent) experienced pain at baseline when not taking their medication and had an average pain score of 6.2, on a scale where 10 was maximal pain. All baseline pain improved or disappeared at eight years after surgery, according to the results. However, the authors discovered new pain developed in 18 of 24 patients (75 percent) during the eight-year follow-up. New pain impacted 47 body parts and the average pain score for new pain was 4.4. In most of the patients (11), new pain was musculoskeletal characterized by an aching and cramping sensation in joints or muscles, the authors note.

"We found that pain in PD [Parkinson disease] is improved by STN DBS and the beneficial effect persists after a long-term follow-up of eight years. In addition, new pain developed in most of the patients during the eight-year follow-up period. We also found that STN DBS is decidedly less effective for musculoskeletal pain and tends to increase over time. Therefore, musculoskeletal pain needs to be addressed independently," the study concludes.

In a related editorial, Richard B. Dewey, Jr., M.D., and Pravin Khemani, M.D., of the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, write: "Because previous studies on pain following STN DBS for PD are of short duration, the durability of the procedure's effect on pain is not well established. The chief strength of the work by Jung and colleagues is the long follow-up period, which suggests that, although DBS may relieve pain for a time, this is not a durable effect owing to the onset of new, primarily musculoskeletal pain."

"Despite its limitations, the study by Jung and colleagues provides a novel perspective on the durability of the pain-relieving properties of STN DBS in PD. The authors direct our attention to the fact that musculoskeletal painmay emerge years after DBS, warranting individualized treatment," they continue.

"Although there is growing consensus that STN DBS decreases the level of pain in people with PD, the literature is mixed on the subtypes of pain that are responsive to DBS, and the study by Jung and colleagues shows that new pain arising years after the procedure is common. This underscores the importance of performing future trials with larger cohorts, longer observational periods and standard methods to enable effective interpretation of outcomes. For now, we have learned that STN DBS does not take the ouch out of PD in the long run," the editorial concludes.

 Explore further: Deep brain stimulation improves non motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease

More information: JAMA Neurol. Published online March 23, 2015. DOI: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2015.8 

http://health.einnews.com/article/256272340/iQ1sHtuqhTiKVA74

JAMA Neurol. Published online March 23, 2015. DOI: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2015.36

UF physician part of Parkinson’s panel at White House

In this image from an online video, Dr. Michael Okun speaks during panel discussion about Parkinson's disease at the White House on Monday.

The White House

By Christopher Curry
Staff writer

Published: Monday, March 23, 2015 at 11:50 a.m.

Last Modified: Monday, March 23, 2015 at 11:50 a.m.

A UF Health physician and researcher was part of a panel of experts who gathered at the White House Monday morning to discuss progress and challenges in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease.

“The mind-blowing changes we can see from research are really amazing,” said Dr. Michael Okun, the co-director and co-founder of the UF Health Center for Movement Disorders and Neurorestoration.

Okun, who is also the medical director of the National Parkinson Foundation, described Parkinson’s as “the most complex disease in medicine. Period.”

But he said its complexity has also led to some treatment techniques that people decades ago may not have imagined possible. He pointed to deep brain stimulation, or “pushing” electricity deep into a patient’s brain to change its circuitry and improve their condition.

Okun and other panel members said the progress to date in research and treatment could slow or stall if research funding from the National Institutes of Health is not increased.

But Panel member Dr. Caroline Tanner, the director of the Parkinson’s Disease Research, Education and Clinical Center at the San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Center, said the funding trend has been moving in the opposite direction, with less money available and grants more difficult to obtain.

During a morning that also included discussions featuring patients and their caregivers, Okun said Parkinson’s is a “disease that affects the family.” He said that while doctors are often the “center of the universe” in medicine, with Parkinson’s, the “patient is the sun” and everything must revolve around him or her.

The panel discussion was part of the White House’s Champions for Change for Parkinson’s Disease event. 

Okun co-founded the UF Health Center for Movement Disorders and Neurorestoration in 2002. The center has treated several thousand patients and tracks nearly all of them in “one of the largest research databases of movement disorders in the world,” according to UF Health

http://health.einnews.com/article/256280988/BAjly8NBt1QGInSC

Parkinson's Advocate and Olympic Medalist Davis Phinney to Receive White House "Champions of Change" Award

-- Leaders in Parkinson's disease honored for building awareness, investing in research that impacts the lives of 1.5 million Americans --

PR Newswire

BOULDER, Colo., March 20, 2015

BOULDER, Colo., March 20, 2015 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ -- As part of the Champions of Change program (www.whitehouse.gov/champions), the White House recognizes everyday Americans who are doing extraordinary things to empower and inspire members of their communities. On March 23, 2015, nine people and organizations in the Parkinson's community will be honored for advocating for better treatments and a cure.

Davis Phinney was selected because of his work and pioneering vision to share education, inspiration and effective self-care strategies so that those living with Parkinson's can take action to improve their quality of life.

In 2000, Davis Phinney was fresh off of a successful professional cycling career, highlighted by an Olympic bronze medal (1984), and his role as a key member of the first American team to race in the Tour de France, when he was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. He founded the Davis Phinney Foundation in 2004 to focus on living well today with Parkinson's. More than a decade later, the Foundation's work has benefited hundreds of thousands of people, their health care providers, care partners and communities by dramatically changing the approach to living with and treating the disease. Phinney's tenacity, coupled with his infectious positive attitude and dedication to well-being, inspire the work of the Davis Phinney Foundation and have earned him the reputation as a tireless advocate and mentor for others living with Parkinson's.

"In 2002, I carried the Olympic torch, as part of the torch relay, when it came through Boulder en route to the Olympic Games in Salt Lake City. That feeling, the responsibility, and that obligation of bearing the torch – an inspiring symbol of light and hope – has stayed with me, and it informs everything that we do at the Davis Phinney Foundation," said Phinney. "I'm deeply honored to be recognized as a Champion of Change."

To watch the ceremony live online, visit www.whitehouse.gov/live at 9:00 a.m. on March 23rd.

Davis Phinney Foundation

The Davis Phinney Foundation was created in 2004 to help people with Parkinson's disease live well today. Its major initiatives include: the Every Victory Counts^® manual, developed by movement disorder experts to provide practical ways to live well with Parkinson's; The Victory Summit^® symposia series, which brings experts into communities to share advances in science, care and to inspire those affected by the disease to take action; the Living Well Challenge™ educational webinar series; the "Parkinson's Exercise Essentials" video and the funding of research focused on exercise, speech and other quality of life therapies. www.davisphinneyfoundation.org

Parkinson's Disease

Globally, an estimated 6.3 million people have Parkinson's disease. It affects men and women alike. Its prevalence is higher in the over-60 age group, although diagnosis at younger ages is increasingly common.

Contact: Audrey Strong
(720) 324-8689
audreystrong2009@yahoo.com

To view the original version on PR Newswire, visit:http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/parkinsons-advocate-and-olympic-medalist-davis-phinney-to-receive-white-house-champions-of-change-award-300053722.html

SOURCE Davis Phinney Foundation

Second Parkinson’s Vaccine Reports Positive Safety Results

FoxFeed Blog

Posted by  Maggie McGuire, March 20, 2015

Irish biotechnology company Prothena announced yesterday that its vaccine in development to slow Parkinson’s disease (PD) progression was safe and tolerable in a Phase I study.

This immunotherapy approach introduces an antibody (called PRX002) against the protein alpha-synuclein, which clumps in the brain cells of people with PD. Researchers believe that clearing out the clumps of alpha-synuclein will protect the brain cells from degradation caused by Parkinson’s.

Prothena’s news follows an announcement last July from Austrian biotech AFFiRiS that its MJFF-funded vaccine against alpha-synuclein was also safe and tolerable in a Phase I study. AFFiRiS is now testing a “boost” of that vaccine in the same research volunteers and is planning a Phase II study.

While both immunotherapy drugs, the compound from AFFiRiS prompts the body to generate the antibody against alpha-synuclein while Prothena is introducing the antibody directly. MJFF has not funded Prothena but is consulting on its PRX002 project.

The company tested its drug in 40 healthy volunteers and found that, in addition to safety, treatment was associated with lower alpha-synuclein levels, a promising but early finding.

“We look forward to building upon these data with results from the on-going, multiple ascending dose study in patients with Parkinson's disease expected in the first half of 2016, where we will also be measuring levels of PRX002 in the cerebrospinal fluid and assessing additional biochemical, imaging and clinical biomarker endpoints,” said Gene Kinney, PhD, chief scientific officer and head of research and development at Prothena.

That Phase I study in people with Parkinson’s is recruiting at a number of sites in the United States. Visit Fox Trial Finder to learn more.

Watch a webinar on the role of alpha-synuclein in PD and how researchers are targeting this protein to stop disease progression.

https://www.michaeljfox.org/foundation/news-detail.php?second-parkinson-vaccine-reports-positive-safety-results

Fatigue and Parkinson's Disease

 

Why can't I seem to get anything done?

One of Parkinson’s more insidious symptoms is fatigue. This is not your garden variety bone-tired. This is fatigue on a cellular level. Your body is working overtime to accomplish the simplest of tasks: Taking a shower, answering the phone, pouring orange juice. In addition, you may be coping with the combination of possible cognitive problems knows as "Parkinson's apathy". These problems include difficulty initiating projects, inability to follow complex instructions, short-term memory loss and difficulty in switching gears midstream.

You can fight Parkinson’s disease apathy by exercising, trying to get regular sleep, taking short naps, and making sure you do not isolate yourself. Also ensure that you and your doctor are square on your drug regimen. The dishes still might not get done, but at least you will feel better.

https://www.michaeljfox.org/understanding-parkinsons/living-with-pd/topic.php?fatigue

Dexterity and Parkinson's Disease

How can I minimize embarrassing dexterity problems?

Dexterity problems can include fumbling for bills, change, and credit cards at checkout counters. Staying at home is a great temptation when your symptoms are showing, but it only deprives you and your spouse or friends of the pleasure of each other's company. And it isolates you. The truth is that few people will even notice your symptoms. A bad tremor while making change is taken for a momentary rattling.

 Knocking over a glass at dinner? Spilled soup? It happens to everyone.

How can I minimize embarrassing dexterity problems such as fumbling for bills, change, and credit cards at checkout counters?

Some Parkinson’s patients embark on an endless search for the perfect wallet, but the issue is not limited to money. Car keys, theater programs, church bulletins, a glass of wine, or a plate of food at a buffet — worse yet, both a glass and a plate. Everyone drops things. It just happens more frequently with Parkinson’s patients, who carry around this baggage of "disease" that seems to get a little heavier with each mishap.

Compensatory strategies can be helpful: A large wallet for easy access, counting change ahead of time, not using change, asking a friend to hold your drink while you steady a plate, etc. When you encounter a new problem, think about the best way to handle it the next time. And remember, dropping change is a symptom of your disease, not a reflection on your character. The more you are out and about, the more people will see you, and visibility means greater acceptance from others as well as increased confidence. Parkinson’s disease doesn't have to be a prison.

https://www.michaeljfox.org/understanding-parkinsons/living-with-pd/topic.php?dexterity

Symptoms & Diseases Associated With Vitamin D Deficiency

I do not recommend any drugs, or doctors. I just provide copies of information to view.

It is estimated that anywhere from 30 to 100% of Americans, depending upon their age and community living environments, are deficient in Vitamin D. More than half of all American children are vitamin deficient. Supposedly almost 3/4s of pregnant women are vitamin D deficient, predisposing their unborn children to all sorts of problems. Worldwide, it is estimated that the epidemic of vitamin D deficiency affects one billion people. In my practice over 80% of patients whose vitamin D levels I check are deficient.

No one is exactly sure why this is happening apart from the fact that we spend too much time indoors and when we go out into the sun, we lather sunscreen on ourselves. I think it must be more than that. But whatever the reason, the reality is we have a major epidemic on our hands.

How much vitamin D do I need?

How much vitamin D you need varies with age, body weight, percent of body fat, latitude, skin coloration, season of the year, use of sun block, individual variation in sun exposure, and – probably – how ill you are.

As a general rule, old people need more than young people, big people need more that little people, fat people need more than skinny people, northern people need more than southern people, dark-skinned people need more than fair skinned people, winter people need more than summer people, sun block lovers need more than sun block haters, sun-phobes need more than sun worshipers, and ill people may need more than well people.

What I and many of my colleagues around the country are finding is that even people spending what we thought was adequate amount of time in the sun, are still showing up with low blood vitamin D levels. I am not sure why at this stage but there is an easy and cheap solution…vitamin D supplementation.

Here are some guidelines:

	If your blood level is above 45ng/ml and for maintenance, I recommend 2,000-4,000 IU daily depending on age, weight, season, how much time is spent outdoors, where one lives, skin color and obviously blood levels. In other words if you are older, larger, living in the northern latitudes during the winter, are not getting sun and have dark skin, I recommend the higher maintenance dose.
	If your blood level is 35-45 ng/ml, I recommend you correct it with 5,000 of vitamin D3 a day for 3 months under a doctor’s supervision and then recheck your blood levels.
	If your blood level is less than 35 ng/ml, I recommend you correct it with 10,000 of vitamin D3 a day under a doctor’s supervision and then recheck your blood levels after 3 months. It takes a good 6 months usually to optimize your vitamin D levels if you’re deficient. Once this occurs, you can lower the dose to the maintenance dose of 2,000 – 4,000 IU a day.

What are the symptoms of vit D deficiency?

There is no clear pattern of symptoms. In fact many people remain asymptomatic despite low levels. But here are the more common symptoms

• Fatigue
• General muscle pain and weakness
• Muscle cramps
• Joint pain
• Chronic pain
• Weight gain
• High blood pressure
• Restless sleep
• Poor concentration
• Headaches
• Bladder problems
• Constipation or diarrhea

What diseases are associated with Vit D deficiency?

Vitamin D deficiency has been shown to play a role in almost every major disease. This includes:

• Osteoporosis and Osteopenia
• 17 varieties of Cancer (including breast, prostate and colon)
• Heart disease
• High blood pressure
• Obesity
• Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes
• Autoimmune diseases
• Multiple sclerosis
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Osteoarthritis
• Bursitis
• Gout
• Infertility and PMS
• Parkinson’s Disease
• Depression and Seasonal Affective Disorder
• Alzheimer’s Disease
• Chronic fatigue syndrome
• Fibromyalgia
• Chronic Pain
• Periodontal disease
• Psoriasis

What about vitamin D toxicity?

It is impossible to generate too much vitamin D in your body from sunlight exposure: your body will self-regulate and only generate what it needs. Although very rare, it is possible to overdose and become toxic with supplementation as vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin and therefore stored in the body for longer periods of time. Therefore if you are taking 5,000 IU or more daily, you should have your blood levels monitored approximately every 3 months.

What blood test should I have to check my vitamin D levels?

The only blood test that can diagnose vitamin D deficiency is a 25-hydroxy-vitamin D (25 OH vitamin D). Unfortunately, some doctors are still ordering the wrong test, 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D. In fact a common cause of high 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D is a low 25(OH)D or vitamin D deficiency. So when doctors see the 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D is normal or high and tell their patients that they are OK, they are often vitamin D deficient.
Your doctor should do this test for you. Unfortunately even some of the labs, in particular Qwest, have had problems with correct results, usually giving erroneously high results.

If you don’t want to go through your doctor, the ZRT lab does a blood spot test that you can order without going through a doctor.

What is the ideal blood level of 25 hydroxy vitamin D?

The current ranges for “normal” are 20 to 55 ng/ml. These are much too low!!! They may be fine if you want to prevent rickets or osteomalacia, but not for optimal health. The ideal range for optimal health is 50-80 ng/ml.

How often should I have a 25 hydroxy vitamin D blood test?

At least once a year especially at the beginning of winter. If you are supplementing, I suggest you monitor your vitamin D levels approximately every 3months until you are in the optimal range. If you are taking high doses (10,000 IU a day) your doctor must also check your calcium, phosphorous, and parathyroid hormone levels every 3 months.

http://www.drfranklipman.com/symptoms-diseases-associated-with-vitamin-d-deficiency/

Research and Markets: Global Parkinson's Disease Pipeline Highlights 2014-2015

Research and Markets(http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/dck497/parkinsons) has announced the addition of the "Parkinson's Disease Pipeline Highlights - 2015" report to their offering.

The latest report Parkinson's Disease Pipeline Highlights - 2015, provides most up-to-date information on key pipeline molecules in the global Parkinson's Disease market. It covers emerging therapies for Parkinson's Disease in active clinical development stages including early and late stage clinical trials. The pipeline data presented in this report helps executives for tracking competition, identifying partners, evaluating opportunities, formulating business development strategies, and executing in-licensing and out-licensing deals.

Clinical Trial Stages:

The report provides Parkinson's Disease pipeline molecules by clinical trial stages including both early and late stage development - phase 3 clinical trials, phase 2 clinical trials, phase 1 clinical trials, preclinical research, and discovery stage.

Drug Mechanism Classes:

The report provides Parkinson's Disease pipeline molecules by their dominant mechanism of action. This helps executives categorize molecules based on their drug class and also assess the strengths and weaknesses of compounds.

Company:

The report provides Parkinson's Disease pipeline molecules by the Originator Company.

Short-term Launch Highlights:

Find out which Parkinson's Disease pipeline products will be launched in the US and Ex-US till 2017.

Key Topics Covered:

1. Parkinson's Disease Pipeline by Stages

2. Parkinson's Disease Pipeline by Drug Class

3. Parkinson's Disease Pipeline by Company

4. Parkinson's Disease Phase 3 Clinical Trial Insights

5. Parkinson's Disease Phase 2 Clinical Trial Insights

6. Parkinson's Disease Phase 1 Clinical Trial Insights

7. Parkinson's Disease Preclinical Research Insights

8. Parkinson's Disease Discovery Stage Insights

9. Appendix

10. Research Methodology

For more information visit http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/dck497/parkinsons

Laura Wood, Senior Manager
press@researchandmarkets.com
For E.S.T. Office Hours Call 1-917-300-0470
For U.S./CAN Toll Free Call 1-800-526-8630
For GMT Office Hours Call +353-1-416-8900
U.S. Fax: 646-607-1907
Fax (outside U.S.): +353-1-481-1716

http://health.einnews.com/article/255631088/-lg3Xrx375fOFdPX

Using Electrical Pulses to Treat Parkinson’s Disease Pain

Mar 18, 2015    |    Rachel Lutz
Long-term spinal cord stimulation can stall symptoms of diseases similar to Parkinson’s, according to research published in Scientific Reports.   Researchers from Duke Medicine built upon their earlier research – which found that electrical pulsations can temporarily ease the symptoms of mice’s neurological disorders – in order to target the loss of dopamine production in the brain. Dopamine is an essential brain molecule that affects movement, muscle control, and balance. L-dopa is a standard drug treatment used for Parkinson’s disease, and works to replace dopamine in the brain. However, its side effects and loss of effectiveness over time sparked the researchers’ interest.   “Finding novel treatments that address both the symptoms and progressive nature of Parkinson’s disease is a major priority,” said the study’s senior author Miguel Nicolelis, MD, PhD, in a press release. “We need options that are safe, affordable, effective, and can last a long time. Spinal cord stimulation has the potential to do this for people with Parkinson’s disease.”   Less than 5 percent of Parkinson’s disease patients qualify for deep brain stimulation treatment, despite its merit as a valuable therapy.   “Even though deep brain stimulation can be very successful, the number of patients who can take advantage of this therapy is small, in part because of the invasiveness of the procedure,” Nicolelis said.  

 In 2009, the researcher team developed a device that produces electrical stimulants in an animal model’s dorsal column. The mice had depleted dopamine levels, which mimicked the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, but when the device was turned on, the mice displayed healthy behaviors. For this study, the investigators delved into long term treatment with the device.   Over the course of 6 weeks, pulses were delivered to the mice’s dorsal column twice weekly for 30 minute sessions. The mice demonstrated significant improvement, including motor skills and a reversal of severe weight loss. Better survival of neurons and a higher density of dopaminergic innervations in brain regions that cause Parkinson’s disease in humans were also noted. The researchers extrapolated that the treatment can protect against the loss or damage of neurons. 

  Currently, researchers believe chronic pain can be managed in humans with similar devices. By using electrodes implanted over the spinal cord, a tingling sensation is produced to temporarily relieve pain. Prior literature from researchers worldwide has also demonstrated that targeting the dorsal column in humans could be an effective way to bring back motor function in Parkinson’s disease patients.   “This is still a limited number of cases, so studies like ours are important in examining the basic science behind the treatment and the potential mechanisms of why it is effective,” Nicolelis concluded. 

 See more at: http://www.hcplive.com/news/Using-Electrical-Pulses-to-Treat-Parkinsons-Disease-Pain#sthash.azN4hoS4.dpuf
http://www.hcplive.com/news/Using-Electrical-Pulses-to-Treat-Parkinsons-Disease-Pain